The article deals with the history of clergy in a small medieval town. The history of the parish in Chrzanów is particularly interesting due to the fact that the presbytery was governed by three people. The author makes an attempt to find the reason for such status quo, which to a large extent is the remnant of the canonic group that functioned there before. Drawing from the primary sources the article presents representatives of clergy in Chrzanów; however, little is known about their social as well as territorial background. The author also tries to gather facts as to the duration in which the parish governed by three parish priests functions that way. Particularly interesting issues concern their common accommodation and the division of the estate among the clergy, as well as their collective responsibility for the parish. Moreover, the author brings into focus issues concerning the time and reason for ending the practise of the three parish priests services. The article contains two tables depicting data as to the parish priests, assistant curates, clerical students and prebendaries in the medieval town of Chrzanów, whose names are mentioned in the sources.

The article aims to examine the Franciscan themes and sources in the 14th‑ century Tractatus contra beghardos penned by a Czech Dominican Henryk Harrer. It became clear that Henryk Harrer managed to unite in his writings the pride in being a friar with the reverence for the Franciscan tradition. Francis of Assisi is presented as a perfect example of a friar’s life. However, the reverence for his person did not stop Harrer from referring to some more difficult moments in the Franciscans’ life, namely a conflict carried on in the 1320s and 1330s between radical Friars Minor and Pope John XXII. Owing to the analysis of archival sources we know that while writing his Tractatus contra beghardos Harrer drew from main legal and hagiographic texts in the Friars Minor Order. These were predominantly Regula bullata from the year 1223 and The Life of St. Francis of Assisi written by St. Bonaventure. The reasons for Harrer’s being well conversant with the Franciscan sources and tradition can be attributed not only to the church situation during the pontificate of Pope XXII, but also to particular events that took place in Prague in 1329. At that time the Dominicans residing in Prague, including Henryk Harrer, participated in a mission against the Franciscans who were in favor of Michael of Cesena and the Franciscan Spirituals.

Researching the late‑medieval elites it is essential to single out career mechanisms, whether political or church ones. In many research studies a person’s or group’s career path seems to be more important than seizing the plot of events and phenomena which rendered this career possible. The author of the article makes an attempt to present a few source examples that show the diverse reasons for those careers to happen (e.g. political, spiritual). Not only kinship, but also camaraderie, common interests and striving for common purposes did have a considerable influence on the accomplishment of their purposes. Such was the case of people from court of King Kazimierz the Great, who made use of their diplomatic mission to Avignon in order to secure themselves privileges. A victim to the backstage conflicts was also a vice‑ chancellor John of Busko. Upon his collapse careers were built by Zawisza of Kurozwęki, Nicholas of Kórnik, and John of Czarnków. Not only did the royal eye rest on people capable of service in his vicinity, and not only the mighty promoted their younger relatives. Influences, acquaintances and alliances had an impact on whose careers were built and how great they were.

Michał, called Hawdank (Habdank, Hawdaniec), was a progenitor of a magnate Buczacz family (Awdaniec coat of arms), who played a major role in Crown Podolia in late medieval period. However, till this day the historians did not account for when exactly Michał reached the Ruthenian lands, whether it was during the reign of king Casimir the Great, which was when Michał was endowed with lands there (according to earlier sources), or he came there in the company of Władysław of Opole who reigned there in 1372—1379 on behalf of king Louis I of Hungary (according to later sources). Michał’s background seems dubious as well. Earlier historiography (after Władysław Semkowicz) suggests that he could come from the terra Lanciciensis; whereas later one (Jerzy Sperka) maintains that most probably Silesia was his land of origin. Undoubtedly, Michał was endowed with an extensive land complex surrounding Buczacz by the Duke of Silesia. In Buczacz Michał founded a parish church, whose beginnings date back to 1379 according to the document preserved. Nevertheless, historians did not pay due attention to the fact that the church was founded once again (de novo construximus), and — what is more — the names on the list of witnesses could not appear there in 1379, but in 1373. Taking this into consideration, along with the subsequent foundation of the church, the new list of witnesses contained names from the previous foundation charter. This however allows for drawing a conclusion that the first foundation of the church in Buczacz tool place in 1373; nonetheless, Michał Awdaniec was endowed with the lands of Buczacz earlier, that is in 1372—1373.

In the following paper the author discusses the character and career of Andrew Czarnysza (d. 1416), the vogt of the Supreme Court of the German Law in the Wawel Castle, closely related to the king Ladislaus Jagiello. Before Czarnysza adopted the municipal law in Krakow and was appointed a member of the Town Council (i.e. the most important institution of the municipal government), he held a number of responsible positions, often at the same time, for example a state-owned monopoly: the Wieliczka salt mine and the royal mint in Krakow. The author of the article shows as well how one could join the political elite of medieval Krakow — namely the town recruited a prominent person closely associated with the royal court who could further promote the interests of the municipal community of Krakow in the milieu of the king. Finally, the attention is paid to a handwritten note containing a description of the Czarnysza’s cross with relics, i.e. the oldest autograph connected to the Krakow’s municipal government in the Middle Ages.

The article presents the Chebda family (Stary Koń coat of arms), who dwelled since the end of 14th century in the Northern parts of Sądecczyzna, and till this day has stayed rather out of focus to researchers and historians, yet illustrated as an interesting example of the knightly family from the area of Lesser Poland. The author takes up the following issues: the genealogy of the Chebda family, their property, and an issue of obtaining estate on the territory of Sądecczyzna in particular, as well as patronage. Apart from detailed findings, the quoted and analyzed sources illustrating the abovementioned issues allow for presenting a general picture of the family discussed in the article. Initially, a certain standard example of accomplishing particular medieval knightly purposes comes to focus, that is a formation of an estate complex, possession of a fortified residence, and finally the patronage of churches. After that time, this well‑ off knightly family — the lesser nobility typical of the old Republic of Poland — suffers from fragmentation and impoverishment.

The article is devoted to the characteristics of production and consumption rules of particular types of sweets consumed in the selected Italian cities of Northern and Central parts of the Apennine Peninsula — Genoa, Milan, Venice and Florence in the 14th and 15th centuries. The author brings forth the terminology of later medieval Italian sweets, and discusses methods (e.g. heat treatment of sugar) and production regulations (e.g. productions of candies with added fruits or almond paste). A separate section deals with the issue of circumstances when sweets were consumed in the selected Italian cities in the 14th and 15th centuries. The source documents were Italian cookbooks Anonimo lucano, Anonimo padovano, Anonimo senese, Anonimo veneziano, a Maestro Martino’s cookbook, a collection entitled De honesta voluptate et valetudine written by Bartlomeo Sacchi (known as Platina), a compilation of recipes known as Anonimo neapolitano, as well as medical and pharmaceutical sources (Ambrogio Oderico De sanitate regenda consilium, Paula Suardo Thesaurus apothecariorum, and by anonymous author Medicinalia quam plurima).

The article presents some research on the book of the dead kept by the brethren functioning by the church of the Holy Virgin Mary in Krakow. The researchers agree that the brotherhood gathered representatives of the wealthiest of the bourgeoisie in Krakow. The article focuses on the entries in the book containing information on the people who were referred to as “kirchenbitter” and “diner”. This led the author to draw a conclusion that the brotherhood — disregarding its evident elite character — also gathered some paupers and servants. Mentions of this fact in the book of the dead allow for revealing the anonymity of the servants in Krakow, less‑known by historians till this time. The author, having dug out all mentions of the craftsmen in the brotherhood, made an attempt to identify those people.

The author of the article makes use of the concept of „sacred geography” put forward by Halina Manikowska, and renders it a point of departure in his analysis of a vision of a Krakow townswoman Veronica, presented by Jan Długosz. Veronica has a dream about a wondrous procession of saints Wojciech and Florian — their procession to the Wawel Cathedral in order to visit saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus. They were regarded as patron saints of the Kingdom of Poland (at least since the time of bishop of Krakow, Zbigniew Oleśnicki). The sense of this patronage is rendered in Veronica’s vision by means of St. Adalbert who accuses the Polish of oppression of the poor, lack of safety on roads, and of peddling power. So as not to let a severe punishment be inflicted on the town and country, the situation had to improve, whereas townspeople should participate in processions to „appease God’s wrath”. In the medieval agglomeration of Krakow processions participated in an unusual space. An analysis of patrocinia, hagiotoponyms, and the localization of certain objects leads to designation of hagiotoponymic sacrum spheres focused on the patron saints of Krakow and of the Kingdom of Poland. A complex view on the topographic localization of the objects concerned with the nation saint patronage, their hagiotoponymics and processions that joined those places allows for a deeper understanding of the functioning of the sacred geography of the late medieval Krakow.

During the second half of the 14—15th centuries Pospolyta Army involved the military honours among the nobility and Soltys. The requirements for qualitative and quantitative arms were the same for both Sanok nobility and Soltis. In the middle of 15th century on the territory of Sanok land could be formed a detachment of horse riders which comprised 32,46% of heavily armed spearmen and 67,53% of archers and crossbowmen.

The first part of the article is an attempt to revise the interpretations of a phrase by Jan Długosz from Book 11 of his Annales, namely „tabernaculum capelle supra collem ediciorem lacum Luben spectantem”. Not only is the phrase crucial in determining the march direction of the Polish‑Lithuanian troops to Grunwald and the assumed starting position, but also in determining the place they pitched camp after the battle. The fundamental issue lies in the analysis of the lexis and phraseology that Długosz made use of in his Annales and in the base description of the battle included in this work, that is the anonymous and contemporary to the events of 1410, the so called Cronica conflictus…, which means a Chronicle of the Battle… The second part deals with chapter Lacus terrae Prussiae of Chorographia Regni Poloniae included in the first book of Annales as a document of a limited and even erroneous knowledge — possessed by Długosz by the end of his life — on the subject of the site where the battle of Grunwald was fought.

The author focuses on the issue of the presence/ participation of schismatics at the court of the first Jagiellonians. Their participation was due to many factors. One of them was their direct neighborhood with the followers of the Eastern Orthodox rite, or vivid trade relations. Raised in the Russian environment Sophia of Halshany had to accept Christianity before she married the Polish sovereign. She disavowed the Eastern Orthodox Christianity for the Roman church. The last wife of Władysław Jagiełło surely did not arrive in Kraków alone. One may presume that she did so in company of people from her closest circle among whom there were the followers of the Orthodox Church. They were not allowed to recite liturgy at the Wawel Castle. Therefore pope Eugenius issued a document in which he asserted that they were allowed to participate in the catholic rites, which till that time was impossible due to the unfavorable stand of the clergy in the West. The bulla undoubtedly was the supplication of the queen to whom the fate of her Orthodox courtiers and guests was not indifferent. Unfortunately, the supplication was not preserved; however, the first lines of the bulla may be suggestive of the hope expressed by the queen that the Rusyns will gradually be seek unity with the Roman church.

On May 1, 1457, King Casimir IV Jagiellon solemnly entered Gdańsk. He was accompanied by several thousand soldiers and courtiers. The Polish ruler's visit was related to the finalization of the purchase of several Prussian towns and castles, including the capital Malbork, from the Teutonic Knights. In Gdańsk, Casimir received funding, which was contributed by the Gdańsk citizens, obtained by the city. The image of the arrival and place of stay of the royal entourage is well presented narratively in the sources. The account of Jan Długosz, who was a direct witness to these events, seems to be important. The royal visit was accompanied by numerous feasts, as well as foot and horse tournaments, in which Polish knights from the king's immediate entourage showed off their skills. Apparently, the breastplates and other possessions of the voivode of Sieradz, Dziersław of Rytwiany, Mikołaj Reichenberg (probably an ensign in the royal army), the chamberlain of Kraków, Krzesław Wojszyk of Wójcza, and the chamberlain of Lublin, Jan Kuropatwa of Łańcuchów. The king officially committed himself to redeeming the chamberlains' possessions before the Gdańsk council in June and July 1457.

The subject of this article is the financial activity of Paweł Olsztyński of Szczekociny (d. 1492), a descendant of the gentry family of the Odrowąż coat of arms. He was a son of Piotr Woda, a vice‑ chancellor of the Kingdom of Poland, and a grandson of John, a castellan of Lublin. He inherited after his ancestors mortgages in King’s lands (łukowskie, olsztyńskie, and zawichojskie). Olsztyński did not hold any significant position. Neither did he play any important role. Olsztyńskie was seen as an inherited property by him and he took his name after the name of the castle. The main scope for activity was financial policy based on the royal properties in use. Owing to the efficient system of amassing capital, which was based on mortgages, Olsztyński could lend large amounts of money (since the 1480s) that brought him considerable profit. Financial means that he gained by basing his policy on the royal properties in use, allowed him to aspire to a high position in the social hierarchy, which was marked by the title “gentleman” (generosus) that he was addressed with. Paweł Olsztyński of Szczekociny manifested a tendency — characteristic of the gentry — to boast about his high position by using estate holdings (in this case the royal ones) that belonged to the Olsztyn castle.

The purpose of the article is to illustrate a phenomenon of rotation in most important offices at the court of Elizabeth of Austria, that is chief stewards and royal chefs. The sovereign had at least eight chief stewards and six royal chefs. The office of the chief steward falls into two stages; the first one (1454—1477) is described as being stable and permanent, which favored the formation of the court of the “foreign” queen of Poland (the only chief steward Mikołaj of Borzyszowice), whereas the second stage (1477—1500/1505) was a time of dynamic changes occurring every few years (seven chief stewards). Such rotation in this office probably reflected changes in the ruling elite in the second half of the 15th century. Changes in the office of the royal chef happened likewise, namely the working time was short and a change occurred relatively early. As in the case of chief stewards, it might have been due to changes that took place within the structure of the political elite, or simply because of the dignitary’s retirement and being rewarded with another office (starosty).

The article investigates the beginnings and shaping of the office of the hetman of the Crown. The opinions of historians on the subject of the beginnings of the above‑mentioned office have been analyzed. The research into an “early hetmanship” in literature, as well as an establishment of the office of the hetman directly from a diverse types of military deputies of the sovereign, and their treatment as progenitors of hetman have been called into question. The first office was that of the field hetman, not the hetman of the Crown. The establishment of the office of the field hetman was in close relationship with the constant threat of the south‑ eastern borders at the end of the 15th century, as well as with the spreading of the levy, and the need for an appointment of the General Defence — a permanent army stationing on the Eastern borderlands. Following the appointment of the field hetman in 1503, the office of the hetman of the Crown was established. The first great hetman of the Crown was Mikołaj Kamieniecki. However, this did not put an end to the formation of the aforementioned office which lasted till the 17th century. Also, one should take due care as regards titles used at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. Very often a hetman was referred to as a supreme military commander of the Polish army operating independently of the competent hetman. In the sources the field hetman was often attributed the hetman of the Crown, or the deputy hetman.

The article deals with characters of the Renaissance battle painting from National Museum in Warsaw The Battle of Orsha (first third of the 16th century). The paper is a conceptual attempt to identify images of Ruthenian noblemen between personages depicted in the painting by way of examinating their arms, armour, equipment and battle clothes upon a cultural and military contexts of the epoch.

The reviewed biography of Boleslaw the Wrymouth by Stanislaw Rosik is a long-awaited, comprehensive attempt to present the life and reign of one of the most important rulers of early medieval Poland. Rosik, who hails from Wrocław's historical circles and is a student of Lech Tyszkiewicz, uses the latest scientific findings and his long-term research, especially on Pomerania's Christianization, making this biography particularly valuable. The author confronts the problem of a sparse and biased source base - limited primarily to the chronicle of Gall Anonymus - while maintaining a critical approach and avoiding speculation. The author avoids hermeticism, writes in colorful, accessible language, and makes the biography attractive to historians and a broader readership. Despite the modest layout, the book meets high substantive standards and fills a gap in Polish historiography.

Armann Jakobsson: Nine Saga Studies The Critical Interpretation of the Icelandic Sagas Reykjavik, University of Iceland Press, 2013, ss. 247