The category of aspect is described differently in the grammars of the French, English and Bulgarian languages. Having analyzed the aspect in the mentioned languages the author stated that it constitutes a permanent feature of the lexeme and that the basic aspectual meaning of lexeme undergoes no modifications. Therefore, the author rejected the classical theory which suggested that expressing the aspect is impossible without the lexeme remaining in agreement with the aspectual morpheme. Verbal lexemes like: march(er), reflech(ir), walk, run, govor(ja), pe(ja) denote continuing activities and represent specific concepts, the immanent feature of which is defined as the continuing or simple imperfective aspect. On the other hand, lexemes such as: bond(ir), explos(er), leap, spring denote non-continuing activities - such conceptual feature is defined as the non-continuing (momentary) or simple perfective aspect. The author came to the conclusion that the compared languages are similar on the level of aspectual concepts and thus there was no need to present three respective visions of the implied time. The peculiar nature of the mentioned languages is visible only on the level of the form of expressions.

The article discusses problems concerning the cognitive function of language that is relations between language and thought and between language and cultures. In the beginning there is a question if the diversity of languages entails the diversity of cognitive representations. In this respect the author presents the opinion of anti-antirelativism that there exist cognitive invariants of language activity which are semantic-cognitive primitives being defined by the author as abstract operators with formal proprieties forming the basis of language constructions. The proposed model of applicative and cognitive grammar emphasis the role of primitives which give the framework of language as well as the influence of context on an interpretation of cognitive architecture underlying language which is of prime importance when thinking about the process of translation.

Krzysztof Bogacki discussed the problems connected with the translation of articles by automatic translation programs. He analyzed three possible situations: a translation from an article-based language into another article-based language, a translation from an article-based language into a language with no articles as well as a translation from a language with no articles into an article-based language. The author, who based his analysis on the available on the Internet programs like Systran, PROMT or Kompas, discovered that although the translations from an article-based language into another language were satisfactory, the translations from a language with no articles into an article-based language were characterized by lexical inaccuracy and misuse of articles. The author also surveyed publications devoted to the use of articles (written by: Gniadek, Wilczyńska, Karolak and Nowakowska, Blanco and Buvet) but did not find there any solutions for the improvement of automatic translation programs, which are unable to analyze pragmatic and semantic factors in order to use a correct article. Finally, the author attempted to introduce certain modifications to Systran so as to improve its translating effectiveness.

Wiesław Banyś discussed the natural polysemy of the lexicon of natural languages, perceived as one of the major problems of the automatic translation. He also presented a solution for the problem of disambiguation of ambiguous expressions - it pivots on the object-oriented description, enriched with a transfer of various possible translations in a target language to the possible ambiguity of a source language. Finally, the author showed differences in the representations of the world in Polish and French, on the example of some Polish renderings of the French verb gagner.

Marcela Świątkowska analyzed the category of interjections in order to present the extent to which these expressions are used for describing the world and to show their role in the construction of characters. In other words, she tried to describe two linguistic ways of constructing the world, both of which employ interjections. The first of them pivots on the use of onomatopoeia, the second one - on the use of stereotypical expressions like Oh là là!, Olé!, Wow! Onomatopoeic expressions imitate the world thus reconstructing the extra-linguistic reality. Such expressions are also used for the description of characters as thanks to the appropriate use of interjections interpreters of the description are able to situate a character in certain social and cultural milieus.

The use of the negative prefix in- in the French language is extremely complicated. In most of the cases this prefix assumes the form of one of the three complementary allomorphs but there are two exceptions from this rule. Many in- derived adjectives lexicalize the superlative value (irremplaçable) on the semantic level, which results in almost systematic polysemy between the compositional value (usually the negative one) and entirely or not entirely non-compositional one (the superlative one). The author of the article proved that the oscillation between these two values influences the position of an adjective in a nominal syntagm. In order to reveal a connection between the lexical negation and the superlative value the author formulated the pragmatic hypothesis. The second analyzed exception concerns the allomorph of the prefix in-, [i-] which is an example of a formal modification. This modification results from the presence or the lack of the superlative value (e.g. irremplaçable vs inremplaçable). This situation causes the appearance of the phenomenon called here “morpheme opportuniste” (the opportunistic morpheme) which allows the adjective to regain its structural meaning.

The author of the article discusses the possibilities of connecting various types of speech (direct speech, indirect speech, free indirect speech) in a textual sequence. The construction of a textual sequence depends on the time references and other related parameters. In case of the direct speech a reference is connected with a single event described by a speaker whereas in case of the indirect speech it becomes assigned to a specific speaker.

In her article Ewa Miczka presented a model of discourse as a multidimensional object and a conception of understanding discourse as the process of creation of its representation. Six domains of this representation - informational, ontological, axiological, functional, expressional and metatextual ones correspond with the previously distinguished dimensions of discourse. The author focused her attention on the issue of (re)constructing the informational domain in the creation of discursive representations.

This article relies on an initial statement: during social troubled times, the news media portray series of individualized though partially anonymous actors, who are supposed to account for a collective crisis. This constitutes a kind of paradox, and brings the following question: according to which strategies, both linguistic and discursive, does a Press Portrait pretend to reflect the image(s) of this restless world? We will specifically consider different levels of tension, between the specific and generic dimensions, on the one hand, and the discourse of the newspaper and that of the social actors on the other hand. In the end, this upgrading of the individual ‘speech’ (the word is always positive) results in the setting up of archetypes; it produces a cultural reference common to all readers and, lastly, questions the relationship between portrait and the related genres in their discourse on the crisis.

Natural languages are characterized by the abundance of sentence structures used for the expression of logical relations between linguistic units. This abundance of structures has an internal hierarchy that depends on the complexity of these structures and on the degree of a connection between the elements of a clause: the same logical relation can be expressed by formally independent sentences, as well as by various forms of compound and complex sentences. The author of the article attempted to present, on the example of the Italian language, an internal hierarchy and various degrees of complexity of the logical relations between clauses. Some of these relations are primary (a cause and effect relationship) and demand the presence of linguistic exponents of relation to a lesser extent that those relations that are marked and demand the presence of certain logical exponents (condition, concession.) What is more, in the content of connectors one can isolate peripheral uses connected with a semantic core, which are, to a large extent, determined by context and pragmatic factors.

Monika Sułkowska analyzed, on the lexical level, the problem of a linguistic image of the world, by comparing phraseological units denoting body parts in French, Italian and Polish. She came to the conclusion that although in these languages the linguistic images of the world and metaphorical meanings of expressions are similar, there are some differences between their metaphorical representations. One can often encounter expressions that differ on the aspect of an employed body part e.g. French avoir la tete sur les epaules and Polish mieć głowę na karku. Most of the differences in the organization of such idiomatic expressions are connected with the names of upper limbs (arm, shoulder, hand, palm), lower limbs (leg, foot) and names like nape or armpit The opposition appears usually between French and Italian on one side, and Polish on the other. The observed differences in representation can be explained by the sernic analysis and by the prototypical cognitive structures.

In this article Witold Ucherek compared Polish and French idiomatic expressions including body parts, the meaning of which revealed topographic sems embodied in the structure of somatisms. The list of mentioned expressions was created on the basis of monolingual and bilingual phraseological dictionaries. The conducted analysis revealed strong similarities between Polish and French, as far as the way of expressing the communicational content of the analysed idiomatic expressions was concerned.

In the paper we focus on the relationship between knowledge and the world. We address this issue through the study of the class of verb + noun collocations. We notice that valid classifications of human behavior may be based on properties of the verb constituents of such structures. Verb + noun collocations appear to be a useful tool for the design of linguistically motivated ontologies.

The authors of the article attempted to present the stereotypical image of woman in French and Polish. On the basis of the analysis of the linguistic corpus including two thousand proverbs, idiomatic expressions and metaphors that can be found in various linguistic dictionaries, the authors arrived at the conclusion that in both French and Polish:
- the cognitive model of woman comprises three basic profiles (physical aspect, character and intellect traits, social roles),
- the metaphoric representation of woman employs items belonging to the women’s domain (home, kitchen), the men’s domain (car, gun), the world of animals (goat, goose, horse) and the imaginary world (goddess, nymph, mermaid),
- the stereotypes of women are usually negative, only those concerning mother are deprived of any disparaging elements.

This paper investigates a cognitive study of the occhio (eye) concept in Italian. It contains an explanation of the chosen concept and explores its meaning and symbols not only in a language, but also in culture and religion. It comments on general concepts of cognitive linguistics like categorization and conceptualization in language. This research primarily utilizes the theory of Cognitive Grammar proposed by R.W. Langacker and also incorporates the Polish approach with JOS, The Linguistic Image of the World introduced by J. Bartmiński. The project focuses on describing the ways people perceive and define the world and reality and how they identify things and events.
There are six distinguished occ/no-profiles: structural, functional, animistic, intellectual, communicative
and sentimental. These profiles reflect what the expressions containing the occhio (eye) or ways of speaking actually communicate, and what these utterances mean. In the structural profile the expressions use the occhio (eye) form and shape to describe objects and phenomena. The functional profile utilizes the phisiological functions of eyes: sight ability, the capacity to see and the state of sleeping (or being awake). Living beings’ characteristics, such as movement and feelings can be found in the animistic profile of the occhio (eye). The intellectual profile shows the ability to understand, discover, judge, measure, and to estimate things. The most specific profile is the communicative profile. This profile can be connected to the intellectual one, in that it involves the capacity to speak by using the eyes, to read, to transfer some information without words. Finally, the sentimental profile includes all the locutions that somehow describe feelings or emotions. This analysis shows the different ways of world perception demonstrated in the locutions containing the occhio (eye) where the meaning depends on the speaker’s choice and intention.

The present paper is devoted to how spatial relations are expressed in Kazakh and French locative adverbials. Kazakh, with its wide variety of inflectional endings, most frequently resorts to a special “locative” case. However, this form turns out insufficient when more detailed information is needed. Speakers are, then, bound to express relative orientation in space via series of postpositions that emerge from free lexical forms of nominal origin. Before undergoing grammaticalization these postpositions designate mainly body parts or other concrete objects. The same strategy is used when dealing with time. It has been remarked by numerous scholars that in their historical development grammatical forms develop from lexical forms and abstract relations are named with words having concrete reference. Although typologically distant, French uses relator nouns to specify localization in time and space. It is claimed that such an evolution is fully regular and not language specific.