Stuart Webb is Professor at Western University's Faculty of Education and specializes in second language acquisition. With a PhD in Applied Linguistics, he has taught English as a foreign language and applied linguistics internationally for many years. His research investigates practical questions like how many words are needed to understand TV, how often words must be encountered to be learned, and which words are most valuable for students. Prof. Webb has authored books on vocabulary research and published over 100 papers in top journals.
This review presents findings from reading intervention studies of L2 students, with a particular focus on: students learning a second language other than English, students learning English who have first languages other than Spanish, and intervention studies which address the issue of transfer of gains made in one language to outcomes in another. Twenty-two studies conducted between 2008 and 2023 with learners of school age were identified using the PICOS and PRISMA Flow Diagram procedures. A clear implication from this review is that intervention studies concerning learning to read in a second language remain a relatively under-researched area which is dominated by studies on learning to read in English. The studies identified in this review suggest that, regardless of the learners’ L1, additional small-group or in-class programs targeting phonological awareness, letter-sound correspondence, and word decoding can produce accelerated and sustained gains in L2 reading, in comparison to “treatment as usual.” Relatively little evidence is available about interventions for older students learning to read in different first languages or about interventions to improve comprehension. Mixed evidence was found concerning the transfer of training effects from one language to another, with typically higher effects for phonological awareness, and letter-sound knowledge compared to comprehension. The finding that reading skills, especially phonological awareness, and letter-sound knowledge, can transfer from one language to another has important implications for policy and practice. We discuss the challenges of attempting to synthesize studies in this area and identify practical implications.
Children begin school having already acquired a wide range of skills related to oral language, phonological awareness, print conventions, and letter knowledge. These emergent skills are closely associated with children’s home literacy-related experiences and are strong precursors of L1 reading development. This experimental research examined whether this participation in literacy events can support second language acquisition to prepare young learners of English for L2 literacy and reading development. It involved two groups of nine seven-year-old learners each: a control group and an experimental group. The experimental group was exposed to carefully selected English print storybooks, chosen for their potential to foster literacy skills, in a home-like environment without formal L2 instruction. The study’s methodology compared the development of emergent skills and L2 reading ability across both groups. Despite varied reading outcomes, all participants in the experimental group developed significant emergent subskills, foundational to reading and beneficial for L2 development and cognitive growth. These results underline the importance of integrating rich English print materials into early L2 learning environments, offering practical insights for educators to enhance young learners’ literacy and reading skills.
The swift transition to online learning platforms has sparked debates on the comparative efficacy of virtual environments in contrast to traditional face-to-face classroom settings, particularly in areas where in-person education has been the customary practice. This study examines the influence of these two modes of learning on the reading comprehension of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students at Northern Border University in Saudi Arabia. The research comprised a group of 35 female undergraduate English majors, aged 18–24, who successfully finished the “Reading Course 2,” either using an online platform or in a conventional classroom environment. The research utilized a post-test for reading comprehension and conducted in-depth interviews to evaluate student perspectives. The findings revealed that there were no notable disparities in academic performance between the two groups. Nevertheless, the majority of students expressed a strong preference for in-person instruction, emphasizing the importance of direct teacher involvement and active participation with their peers. They stated that these factors significantly improved their learning experience and motivation. The findings suggest that although online learning can achieve similar academic achievements as traditional approaches, enhancing virtual engagement and interpersonal relationships is essential for attaining greater student happiness and emulating the comprehensive advantages of in-person education.
This study sought to investigate how teachers perceive their self-efficacy in fostering three critical dimensions of student engagement: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive. The research used the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) as a foundation to unravel the intricate interplay between teacher cognitions and student engagement in academic settings. A mixed-methods approach was employed to ensure both breadth and depth of understanding. Quantitative data were gleaned using descriptive statistics, while qualitative insights were extracted from in-depth teacher interviews. Findings revealed that teachers feel most efficacious in catalyzing emotional engagement, with both quantitative scores and qualitative accounts affirming this observation. A palpable connection between emotional and behavioral engagement was identified, implying that active participation often stems from emotional resonance. Conversely, cognitive engagement emerged as a nuanced challenge, with teachers often grappling to influence it effectively. SCT interpretations underscored the dynamic interplay between individual cognitive processes, observational learning, and the broader educational milieu. The pronounced role of emotional engagement suggests the necessity for tailored teacher development programs. Furthermore, the intricacies of cognitive engagement advocate for more individual-centric curriculum designs. These insights have profound implications for teacher training, curriculum design, policy formulation, and future research, emphasizing the need for creating immersive and holistically engaging learning environments.
Language teachers experience many stressors and challenges due to the physical, emotional, and social demands of their work, negatively impacting their well-being and performance. Existing research on language teacher well-being has primarily examined the factors affecting it. However, limited research has focused on how language teachers’ well-being changes over time and across long periods. To address this gap, this study investigates the well-being of two English language teachers in Turkey across the span of their careers from a Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) perspective, using a comparative case approach based on the PERMA framework, a model of psychological well-being and happiness including five components: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. The data were collected through in-depth interviews with two English language teachers using retrodictive qualitative modeling (RQM) as the methodology. The data were analysed separately for each teacher and then compared. The analysis revealed several factors affecting the well-being of both teachers across their careers. The main theme that emerged was perseverance, which characterized the experience of both participants. Other common themes included professional development, responsibilities, social interaction, and student improvement. The study identified several factors shaping language teachers’ well-being across their carreers. The paper concludes with implications for promoting language teachers’ well-being with suggestions for future research.
Motivation has been extensively researched in second/foreign language (L2) learning, yet its impact on pragmatics acquisition remains underexplored. This nine-week mixed-methods study aimed to address this gap by examining how motivation to learn L2 pragmatic features fluctuates over time whilst identifying factors that may influence these changes. Thirty-seven Czech secondary school learners of English participated, completing a trait motivation questionnaire before and after instruction. Additional data were collected through follow-up interviews and motometers during lessons on suggestion-making. The findings confirmed the dynamics and multidimensionality of motivation, shaped by individual factors, classroom activities, teaching methods, and the relevance of pragmatic content. Motivation varied significantly within and between lessons, driven by both internal and external stimuli. As learners developed a deeper understanding of pragmatics, their motivation increased, enhancing their ability to use English appropriately. The study concludes with recommendations for L2 teaching practices and future research on motivation in pragmatics learning.
Research underscores the crucial role of motivation in language learning, emphasizing the connection between growth mindsets—belief in the power of effort to enhance ability—and motivation. This study addresses the need for an updated understanding of English language moti- vation among Chilean secondary school students, as recent studies on this topic have been lacking since 2011 and 2013. Furthermore, the correlation between language mindsets and language learning motivation in this specific context remains unexplored. The study investigates these aspects among 86 Chilean secondary students, employing a mixed-methods approach using the Language Mindset Inventory, the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) questionnaire, and diary entries. Through this comprehensive approach, the research reveals nuanced motivations, underlining the importance of the ideal L2 self and English learning experiences in shaping motivation, challenging traditional views on the significance of the ought-to L2 self. Quantitative analysis establishes a statistically significant association between language mindsets and L2 motivation. This finding supports the argument that learners with a growth mindset are more inclined to envision a positive ideal L2 self, driven by their belief in improvement and readiness to overcome obstacles in their language learning journey. The study suggests aligning the national curriculum with student aspirations and interests. Additionally, it underscores the significance of cultivating growth-oriented language mindsets in educational settings, with educators playing a pivotal role in inspiring students to approach language acquisition with enthusiasm, dedication, and perseverance.
The paper compares the effectiveness of balanced and skewed input at facilitating the acquisition of a novel construction by learners of English as a foreign language. The study replicates and extends Casenhiser and Godberg’s (2005) seminal paper on L1 construction acquisition. The study argues that the previous research did not pay sufficient attention to the frequency-prototypicality connection, as observed in natural language usage, and makes an attempt to overcome this limitation by adopting a more principled approach to this issue, which takes into consideration the frequency effects. Polish university students (N = 80) were randomly assigned either to skewed frequency groups, where the input was skewed towards the prototypical exemplars of the novel appearance construction, or a balanced frequency group, where the input was evenly distributed among the exemplars of this construction. Both groups were tested on comprehension of the target structure. The results suggest a facilitative effect of balanced input, as compared to the skewed input. This result was found to be correlated with the degree of cognitive/experiential entrenchment of the situations coded by the test exemplars, that is, the balanced frequency group significantly outperformed the control group only on tasks depicting highly familiar and frequently encountered scenes.
The article examines the use of English by Japanese native-speaker teachers (NSTs) in their Japanese as a foreign language (JFL) classrooms. A total of 256 Japanese NSTs from 39 countries participated in the research. It also compares English language usage between native and non-native Japanese language teachers (NNSTs) in their teaching practice. The data were collected through a questionnaire distributed globally among Japanese language institutions in non-Anglophone countries, and both quantitative and qualitative methods were used for data analysis. The findings shed light on the preferences for the primary language of instruction and the varying extent of English language use among NSTs and NNSTs. A global perspective of the study provided an opportunity to draw meaningful conclusions concerning: (1) native-speaker teachers’ strong preference for using direct methods when teaching in Japan and (2) their becoming more flexible in their choices when teaching Japanese abroad. Native speakers teaching abroad tend to use English more frequently during instructional time compared to those teaching in Japan. The research also suggests that both NSTs and NNSTs utilize multilingual practices (translanguaging and code-switching), incorporating Japanese, students’ native languages, and English into their JFL classrooms. The qualitative study of NSTs’ beliefs revealed their flexibility and adaptability in tailoring teaching methods to different students’ unique learning needs and preferences, which is essential for reaching and engaging all learners effectively.
Successful discourse comprehension involves accurate interpretation of anaphoric expressions such as pronouns (e.g., he, him) and reflexives (e.g., himself, herself), which is thought to be structurally constrained under the Binding theory. Previous research has shown that L2 learners whose L1 anaphors are resolved under structural constraints different from those of the L2 encounter greater difficulty interpreting L2 anaphoric expressions. This study explores Vietnamese EFL learners’ knowledge of the Binding Principles (Chomsky, 1981) and their applications in anaphora resolution. Forty-five intermediate and advanced Vietnamese EFL learners completed a forced-choice anaphora test consisting of 24 items. Results reveal that the advanced learners are more accurate in selecting suitable antecedents for both pronouns and reflexives. However, the intermediate learners face challenges, particularly in interpreting pronouns, performing significantly worse than the advanced learners. The findings prompt discussions regarding the implications of the Binding Principles and the potential influence of pragmatic knowledge, suggesting the need for further investigations incorporating pragmatic aspects.
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