The question contained in the title of the article regards the names of three ethnic (tribal) groups found in the literature on the subject which has to do with the pre-state structures of what would later come to be known as the Greater Poland. The names are: the Zeriuani, the Lendians, and the Polans. The first two names are found in sources dating back to the 9th—10th century, while the last name appears for the first time around the year 1000, during the reign of Bolesław I, i.e. after the formation of the Polish state. In the following article, the author argues that previous assertions of Polish historians regarding the Zeriuani have been wrong, since they assumed that the name is toponomastic, that is related to the place of dwelling of the community called by this name. According to the author of the article, the name Zeriuani, which constitutes the only regnum in the writings of the Bavarian Geographer, contains information regarding a myth of the common origins and the subsequent separation of the Slavic community, and thus does not denote a tribal name. Regarding the Lendians, the error constitutes in locating them exclusively in the eastern territories of what would later come to be Poland, since the name can be related to the entire middle territory of Poland, from Odra to the eastern territories, described by the scholars in the last few decades. Thus, the only ethnic name that could exist in the 9th—10th century in the territory of the future Greater Poland was, in fact, the Lendians. On the basis of the available sources, it could be asserted that the Polans, as a tribe, never existed under that name, since it encompassed all subjects of Bolesław I around the year 1000, and thus had no connection with the pre-state tribal structures of the Greater Poland.

Obecne w islandzkich sagach sceny spalenia domostwa wraz z jego mieszkańcami w szczególny sposób stanowią o dramaturgii poszczególnych opowieści. Ze względu na swój radykalizm, odczuwalny także przez ówczesnych, wydarzenia te na długo pozostawały w ludzkiej pamięci, stopniowo stając się integralnym elementem uprawianej tam sztuki literackiej. Sceny tego typu okazywały się bardzo dobrą okazją do uwypuklenia nie tylko intensywności konfliktów opisywanych w sagach oraz bezwzględności osób w nie zaangażowanych. Odbiorcy sag mogli przy tej okazji szczególnie dobrze ujrzeć przymioty i cechy (lub ich brak), których oczekiwali po bohaterach sag, takie jak: lojalność, honor, poszanowanie prawa. Autor nawiązuje do dyskusji na temat roli tego typu scen w poszczególnych opowieściach. Artykuł tym samym stanowi próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, na ile były one jedynie fikcyjnym elementem wpływającym na kształt narracji (eliminacja poszczególnych bohaterów, zarzewie konfliktu, podżeganie do zemsty), na ile zaś nawiązywały swoją literacką aranżacją do autentycznych przypadków, znanych odbiorcom sag. Opierając się na konkretnych przykładach, wziętych z sag rodowych (Saga o Njalu) czy też tzw. sag współczesnych (Saga o Gudmundzie Szlachetnym), autor przychyla się do zdania, że sceny spalenia były konstruowane w sposób, który pozwalał odbiorcom wierzyć, że fikcyjna opowieść mogła rozegrać się w przeszłości. Kluczowa rola przypadała tu odpowiednio nakreślonym postawom ludzi, których owe sceny spalenia dotyczyły, chociażby w kwestii ratowania za wszelką cenę kobiet i dzieci czy też pomszczenia zamordowanych.

The article constitutes a polemic with Marek Cetwiński’s interpretation of the translation of the phrase equus maculis, which appears in the chronicle of Wincenty Kadłubek. The author had previously proposed a translation to “a piebald horse,” which allowed to compare Kadłubek’s account of the legendary race for power in the pre‑Piast era with other instances of the presence of spotted, piebald animals in enthronement rites of the Slavic peoples. Marek Cetwiński considers this translation to be inadequate, arguing that equus maculis should be translated instead as “a foaming horse” — sweaty and tired after a long run. However, this kind of translation has no linguistic basis and results only from the desire to rationalize Kadłubek’s writing. The following article presents instances of the presence of the descriptor maculis in ancient and medieval Latin and discusses the meanings associated with the word by the authors of those texts. The author of the article cites examples from texts written by Vergil, Laurentius Rusius, Ekkehard, or Telonius, with the view of substantiating the thesis that in each of those cases, the term maculae refers to the natural spots on the animal’s skin and not to sweat or dirt. The term is often used in fixed expressions, but it never refers to a sweaty animal. Thus, there is only one way to understand this term, used by the continuators and translators of Kadłubek alike — as the horse’s color.

The immigration of foreign, and especially German knights to Silesia, whose height was reached at the turn of the 13th century, was one of the foremost reasons which contributed to the change of the region’s character in the crucial period of separation from the newly reunited Kingdom of Poland. The research devoted to the changes among the Silesian elites of those times, especially with regard to foreign knights, is notoriously scarce among the Polish academia. The aim of the article, therefore, is to familiarize the readers with the biographies and historical relevance of the von Zedlitz family, one of the numerous German families who settled in Silesia in the Middle Ages. The paper is devoted to the von Zedlitzs who lived in the Duchy of Jawor and Świdnica and the Duchy of Legnica in the 14th century. According to the author, there had been many members of the family who rose to prominence at the courts of the local dukes, thanks to which the von Zedlitz family became one of the most influential and affluent families in the region.

Research on medieval initials has thus far concentrated predominantly on the code initials. Not many studies have been devoted to document initials. Thus, the following article attempts to discuss those particular initials, found in the documents of Bolesław II and Bolesław III, who ruled the Duchy of Opole in the 14th century and avoided grand politics, ruling relatively small duchies located at the peripheries of their contemporary cultural centers. There can be no doubt that the document initials of Bolesław II and Bolesław III were embellished by their writers, using the same ink which was used to write down the rest of the document. The initials are usually extremely simple, lacking any artistic sense or ornamental embellishments. Moreover, they are often shoddily executed. Nonetheless, they do not diverge significantly from the ornamental standards of other rulers, including the royal documents of Casimir III the Great. The ornamental motifs are also consistent with the practice of that time, including the inking of a widened outline of the letter or using a geometrical and floral ornaments, which inscribed itself into the medieval aesthetic. Apart from that, the article touches upon the issue of the potential influence of the addressee on the graphic design of the document, arguing that it remained a significant matter.

The Namysłów region which comprised the Duchy of Namysłów shared its borders with the dominions of the Dukes of Opole. In the second half of the 14th century the Dukes of Opole made three attempts at annexing parts or the whole of the Namysłów region and conceded defeat each time. They were unable to maintain their control over Byczyna, Wołczyn and Kluczbork in 1366—1369, pledged to them by Bolko II the Small, who had in turn received them from King Casimir the Great of Poland. Following Bolko’s death, Louis of Brzeg conquered the towns and defeated Vladislaus and Bolko III of Opole at Kluczbork when they attempted to regain control over the territory. Moreover, sources indicate that in 1387, Vladislaus of Opole failed to secure the Namysłów region, which he had received from Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia. Ten years later, in 1397, his three nephews: Jan Kropidło, Bolko IV and Bernard also suffered defeat when they were pledged the Namysłów region by Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia. The dukes were unpopular with the townspeople, whom they continued to persecute as a revenge for the refusal to grant them entry to the town and whom they burdened with the costs of guarantee for the king. Thus, the Dukes of Opole were thwarted in their endeavors either by stronger opponents or the will of the king supported by the townspeople.

The article touches upon the portrait of Władysław Jagiełło painted by Jan Długosz in his Annals from the perspective of the changing religious position of the ruler. The issue has not yet been discussed in much detail, while the literary form assumed by Długosz allowed him to construct almost separate portraits of Jagiełło which emerge in the text depending on the context and circumstances. In the introductory part of the article, the author briefly discusses Długosz’s motives and his skills in writing about Jagiełło. In the following parts, the author argues that Długosz would at one point write about the future King of Poland as a pagan Lithuanian ruler to be severely criticized, just to refer to him at a different point as the “Apostle of Lithuania” and an exemplary propagator of the Christian faith. Apart from that, the author is interested in the portrayals of Jagiełło against the backdrop of the Polish‑Teutonic feud as a pious ruler. The last section of the article is devoted to other passages from the Annals which touch upon various manifestations of Jagiełło’s religiousness, particularly the relationships between the king and the bishops, including Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki. The conducted analysis showcases that Długosz used the questions of Jagiełło’s piousness as a useful and easily moldable substance for his narratives, adjusted to serve the desired purpose.

The following article discusses the letters of Jan Gruszczyński of the Poraj coat of arms, the Bishop of Włocławek and the subsequent Archbishop of Gniezno, addressed to the Council of the Main City of Gdańsk. The author has conducted a study of six of the original letters, which are currently stored at the National Archives in Gdańsk. The analysis includes both the content of the letters, as well as the formal elements, consisting of the inscription (address), front matter, salutations, and dating. This, in turn, allowed the author to showcase the issues raised by the bishop in his contacts with the Council of Gdańsk and point to the trusted advisors of Gruszczyński (Andrzej Gruszczyński, Maciej of Służewo, Jan Grylewski), as well as formal petitioners (Jerzy Sweidniczer). The research concerning the form of the letters revealed a formulaic use of certain expressions. Moreover, it should be noted that only the letters written by the office in Gniezno included a salutation. In addition, all documents, apart from the letters of credit, were written in the traditional (letter) form.

The article aims at delineating the scale and level of economic activity of the female residents of the Old and New Warsaw in the first half of the 15th century. The primary sources for this research project comprise of the oldest books of lay judges and excerpts from the records of the council, which allowed to isolate a group of 470 entries concerning women. In the studied period, an increase in the economic activity of the townswomen could be observed; they figured in roughly 20—30% of the cases, which corresponds with the numbers observed in other late‑medieval towns and cities. The vast majority of the townswomen (90%) were involved as an active party in a transaction only once in their lives, but what should be underscored is the wide range of people who used the services of legal offices and the high awareness of the power of the written word in legal matters. The research showed a passive character of the economic activity, manifesting primarily in the lack of sufficient funding to invest in the market. Women were twice as much more likely to take out loans and sell properties than they were to give out loans or buy properties. Their funds were also significantly lower from the average sums figuring in contracts signed within the city, and their actions were much less dynamic. The difference in the material circumstances of townswomen can be seen, on the one hand, in the enormous (twentyfold) disproportion of the registered revenues and, on the other hand, in the index of average value of the transaction, which amounted to four three‑score in Old Warsaw and two and a half three‑score in New Warsaw. Any substantial attempt at a comparative study is, however, significantly hindered by the lack of similar study regarding other cities of the Duchy of Masovia or the Kingdom of Poland.

The article aims at describing the portrait of Władysław III Jagiełło included in the Annals by Jan Długosz as a literary creation of the chronicler, created for the purposes of a polemic with the anti-Jagiellonian propaganda of the Habsburg court, perpetuated in particular by the secretary of Frederic II — Enea Silvio Piccolomini. The portrait of the ruler was created utilizing various narrative schemata and constitutes a fairly coherent picture of the ideal of a knightruler, crusader, martyr and defender of Europe. While writing about the events that transpired following Władysław’s ascension to the Hungarian throne in 1440, Długosz maintained that Władysław was motivated solely by the desire to protect the Christian faith from the Turks. To that end, Długosz heavily alluded to the medieval knightly tradition and culture while perpetuating the literary depictions of barbaric pagans. Assuming a hostile stance against other cultures, he advocated for the continued necessity to fight against them, underscoring the importance of Władysław’s sacrifice in the defense of the Christian faith. In turn, the portrait of Władysław constructed by Długosz has become entrenched in historiography and literature, and functions in our culture until this day.

The reviewed monograph Wielun. History of the City until 1792, edited by Alicja Szymczak, is the first such extensive and comprehensive study of the history of Wieluń from prehistory to the end of the First Republic. The work is the result of the cooperation of a team of historians from Łódź, who, based on the preserved city records - one of the largest in Poland - and an extensive archival search, reconstructed the city's spatial, social, economic, and political development. The monograph is divided into two main parts, separated by the caesura of 1580/1581 due to the privilege of Stefan Batory, which reformed the municipal system. The authors presented not only the topographical changes of Wieluń but also discussed in detail the city government, finances, population, crafts and guilds, and religious life. A particular strength of the work is the rich resource of town books, which allowed the reconstruction of the city's socio-topography and the burghers' everyday life. Despite minor editorial remarks, structural discrepancies between parts, and inconsistencies in some chapters, the monograph stands out for its high level of content. It is a model for studies of the history of other urban centers in Poland. The study fills a gap in research on the region's urbanization and provides a solid foundation for further studies of the history of cities in the Old Polish era. Detailed analyses and new sources make the work a valuable tool for researchers of Poland's local, regional, and urban history.

The reviewed book „Документальная писменность Великого Княжества Литовского (конец XIV - перервая треть XVI в.)” by Aляксандра И. Груши is a unique and comprehensive study devoted to the evolution of documentary writing in the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the late 14th century to around 1528. The author, a renowned Belarusian researcher, analyzes the documents themselves - their function, forms, and meaning - and their creation's social, legal, and institutional context. The work consists of eleven chapters that discuss, among other things, the document's origins in Lithuania, the role of the Church and secular authority as promoters of literacy, the different types of documents, and the conditions for their dissemination and consolidation in judicial and administrative practice. An essential part of the book is analyzing the role of seals and signatures in authenticating legal acts and discussing the development of archives and record books, including the Lithuanian Metrics. Hrusza also devotes attention to the relationship between document and oral tradition, pointing to the gradual secularization of legal practices. The author draws on a wealth of source material, citing numerous quotations in the original languages and commenting on examples of parchment and paper documents. Despite some repetitions and structural inconsistencies, the book is considered a fundamental study for researchers of the history of the chancellery and diplomatics of the WKL. This is an item not only for medievalists but also for students, archivists, and enthusiasts of Central and Eastern European history.

The reviewed publication "Inscriptions on seals. Content, Forms, Functions," edited by Piotr Pokora, Marcin Hlebionek, and Tomasz Kaluski, is an essential contribution to the development of Polish sfragistics, showing various research approaches to seal legends. The book is the fruit of a meeting of researchers at the Sphragist Forum in Ciążenie in 2013. It contains ten articles, four of which deal with inscriptions on royal and princely seals; others analyze ecclesiastical and municipal inscriptions, up to modern examples and the issue of divisors and brachygraphy. In the individual texts, the authors address issues related to the genesis of seal formulas and their symbolic function. They also analyze the evolution of the script used in inscriptions and ways of marking abbreviations. An exceptional value of the book is the inventory of the seals of the Świebodzin archipresbytery by Tomasz Kaluski, which, thanks to excellent illustrations, makes it easier to follow the conclusions. Despite the high level of the study, the reviewer notes that the subject of handwriting and divisors has not been fully explored, and the authors often limit themselves to generalities instead of a deeper analysis of letter forms or the logic behind the use of dividing marks and abbreviations. Despite these shortcomings, the work deserves recognition as an inspiration for further research and discussion of seal inscriptions' form, content, and functions in a social and symbolic context. The book fulfills the goal set by the editors - it expands knowledge of seal inscriptions and stimulates new research directions in Polish sfragistics.

Review of: Anna Pobóg‑Lenartowicz: Energiczne, władcze, pobożne. Księżniczek i księżnych opolskich portret (prawie) własny. Opole, Wydawnictwo Nowik, 2016, ss. 136

The reviewed publication by Martin A. Klemenski represents the first attempt at a complete biography of Albert, Duke of Strzelce of the Upper Silesian Piast dynasty, who reigned in the first half of the 14th century. The work, an expanded version of his bachelor's thesis, consists of four chapters discussing the prince's genealogy, foreign policy, domestic politics, and immediate environment. The author made fair use of available sources, including documents from the State Archives in Wroclaw and the Obituary of the monastery in Jemielnica. Still, the reviewer points out several deficiencies in the selection of literature and interpretive inaccuracies. Although Prince Albert did not make a name for himself with significant successes in foreign policy, he actively participated in hereditary disputes in Silesia, and his long reign coincided with a time of substantial administrative changes. Klemenski attempts to reconstruct the borders of the principality of Strzelce, analyzes Albert's relations with Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, and discusses the official structure and the ducal chancellery. Despite shortcomings, such as the misinterpretation of documents or the omission of some articles, the publication is a valuable contribution to medieval Silesian history. It provides a starting point for further in-depth studies of the little-known Upper Silesian Piasts. The reviewer emphasizes the importance of a critical approach to the edited sources and the need to supplement the analysis with additional heraldic and genealogical contexts.