The construction with the French verb devoir + infinitive is generally translated into Polish by means of the verbs musieć, mieć, powinien. The author analyzes the conditions of the use of these verbs in a corpus of Polish translations of literary texts taking into consideration the tense and form of the original French sentence. Musieć expresses obligation and necessity more categorically than mieć and powinien, however, in the past tense it may appear only if the action indicated by the infinitive was carried out. Powinien denotes recommendation or reproach (especially in the translation of the conditional contexts), whereas mieć indicates the intention of the subject, as well as, in the past tense, a future action shown from a past point of view. All the three verbs can have epistemic use, musieć being most frequently employed to indicate strong probability.

The article presents the analysis of the Polish verb opaść / opadać [to fall] conducted within the framework of Applicative-Cognitive Grammar. The aim is to verify whether Polish verbs are suitable for analysis using tools designed for French verbs, as well as finding an invariant meaning of the verb opaść / opadać. The meanings of the analysed verb are presented according to a Polish language dictionnary and a bilingual dictionnary. Further on examples are given of the use of the verb opaść / opadać found in an electronically available corpus (IPI PAN). In the last part of the article 13 meanings of the verb are proposed, presented in the form of semantic-cognitive schemes, and the invariant meaning of the analysed verb.

The aim of this article is to describe the object-oriented method with its application to a given description. Basing on the noun pain the author describes some difficulties that might be found in the lexicographic description of the object class <bread>. The main objective is to make a distinction between a typical predicate and the one inherited by the class, to classify operators into constructors, manipulators and accessors, and finally to distinguish each domain belonging to the given class. Moreover, the author raises the issue of translation; namely the necessity of giving one equivalent as well as the consequences of such a requirement.

To describe Polish equivalents of the structure selon X, we admit that the above structure is the marker of enunciative alterity: a person who enunciates, presents content as taken up of another source. Presentation of discourse was analysed in press articles published in Le Monde Diplomatique and translated into Polish. Modal markers revealed further to the analysis of the corpus are more numerous than those indicated in dictionaries. In a series of tests we brought to view the characteristics of zdaniem, według, wedle and zgodnie z which were subsequently given the names found in the corpus and divided into classes. Ultimately, we discussed modifications in enunciations, related by correlation with obliteration of selon X in the translation.

This study analyses the use of the French verb mettre with the aim of disambiguating their meanings. The process consists in finding every possible meaning of the word by analyzing contexts in which it might appear. This stage constitutes an integral part of creating a Polish-French and French-Polish electronic dictionary and exemplifies the methodology of object-oriented approach proposed by Professor W. Banyś. The analysis is based on the information taken from Le Grand Robert de la Langue Française, Le Trésor de la Langue Française. After analyzing all contexts in which the verb has appeared and after specifying the object classes for each its use of the verb, the author gives its Polish equivalent. Twenty eight Polish equivalents of the French verb mettre are presented.

The article focuses on the lexicographic description of the semantic field of human body parts. The author’s analysis of 89 words belonging to the semantic field in question here is presented from the point of view of object classes proposed by Wiesław Banyś. The analysis concentrates on the problem of the number of predicates that characterize particular body parts. Some of the nouns denoting body parts are described with the use of a large number of attributes, operators and extensions in both the languages, some others, on the other hand, appear in only a few uses. Another fact, worth mentioning here, is that some of the nouns denoting body parts through lack of attributes and operators appear only in metaphoric uses.

The aim of this article is to analyze the specific character of grammatical categories present in humor. One of the most important sources of comicality in the Author’s view is transgression of the logical relations and grammatical constraints through, for example, making use of variation in the paradigm following the coordinating conjunction or preposition, taking advantage of the different senses of the reflexive form of the verb, utilizing vagueness of the distinction between predicative and support verbs. The Author also emphasizes the importance of the disturbance in the situation of communication.

In this article we intend to present the analysis of the selected comparative phraseological units containing names of animals and having a metaphorical basis which is similar both in Polish and Spanish language. The purpose of our contrastive investigations, carried out in the area of cognitive linguistics, is to present the similarities and differences between the comparative phraseological units in these two languages, from both syntactical and semantical point of view. The subject matters of the following paper are verbal comparatives including verbs of movement in which a man is compared negatively or positively to animals. The lexical group of the animals in Polish as in Spanish is numerous and representative. Most of the comparative phraseological units analyzed both in Polish and in Spanish produce negative connotations and associations. Above of all, on the basis of the analyzed material it is stated that incomplete and analogical equivalences are most frequently used.

The following paper investigates a cognitive study of strada (way) in Italian. It is an attempt to present the relation between cognitive processes and language on the basis of the chosen concept. A cognitive analysis shows the way of its comprehension. It is a search for the answer to the following question: how do the human perceptive and cognitive processes function and how does the perception of reality influence the language? The analysis of usage of strada presents the linguistic image of the examined concept in Italian. There is an enormous number of relations among the way of perceiving reality, the way of conceiving it, and the way of its interpretation resulting in the linguistic structures. The relation between the process of cognition and the language is undeniable, and this study is an endeavour to reveal the phenomenon observable in use of language, namely the way people project the real world into the abstract one, in order to understand it better and more fully.

The article discusses the role of French tense Imparfait and its interpretation in the Korean language. The basic notions to recognize the value of the verb are : the semantic value of the topic, the combination with different classes of adverbs and the value of grammar tenses. On the basis of several examples, the author of this article shows that the French past tense Imparfait can be interpreted in several ways : as a punctual tense or as a durative tense.

The present article discusses problems that arise while interpretation speech acts such as requests in Spanish and Polish. The analytical perspective of cultural linguistics allows us to demonstrate that some elements of language change their meaning in specific communicative situations, which, as a consequence, may lead to intercultural misunderstanding. This is the case of the questions used as requests. Analyzing possible ways of translating into Polish this kind of phrases in Spanish, we are able to demonstrate that both languages differ in the way they conceptualize such linguistic phenomena as politeness.

The metaphor has been principally considered within the frame of the first-order predicates, which means within the frame of a simple sentence. The metaphor is manifested as well in causal expressions which put the second order predicates into play. In the first case, the author of the article studies the nominal predicates origin, source, germ and in the second verbs to light and to kindle. The author makes an attempt to prove that the linguistic causality corresponds to semantic relations much more complex than this given by the traditional definition of this notion.

The objective of the paper is a survey of the possible components of intercultural competence required in professional communication in a foreign language. Effective communication requires a thorough knowledge of not only the language of the interlocutor but also their culture in its various aspects: social customs, proper language standards, company culture etc., all contributing to the overall intercultural competence, and fostering mutual understanding or, when the rules of social and linguistic appropriateness are flouted, leading to misunderstanding. In the paper the problem is illustrated by examples of professional communication in French.

The aim of the article is to present the issue of an interlinguistic equivalence of phraseological units and the problem of their translation. In the first part of the text, the author of the article attempts to define and characterise the notion of phraseologism on the basis of the current research in this field. What follows is the notion of equivalence and its short historical description. In the main, third part of the text, the author of the work in question describes the results of her study conducted on the basis of the corpus of phraseological units in French, Italian and Polish. In final, the text is devoted to practical methods a translator may use when transla ting phraseological
units.

The main topic of this paper deals with a general typological survey of the spatial French and Spanish verb venir based on some linguistic studies chosen by the author (J.-P. Boons, 1987; A. Borillo, 1998; D. Bouchard, 1993; C. Vandeloise, 1986, 1987). This article analyses also the syntactic-semantic schemes of venir in the purpose of its translation into Polish. The author takes advantage in her analysis of the concept of the class of objects. The method of the study is based on object-oriented approach and the word sense disambiguation by W. Banyś.

The question of how we preserve the knowledge in our minds, especially with the evolution of cognitive studies, has become a crucial point of the cognitive analyses, and still keeps the researchers highly interested in it. We cannot be really sure what the mental structure of knowledge is, but there are some endeavours to explain it with the phenomena such as: prototype, ICM, cognitive domain, frame, script, scenario, plan, mental spaces, semantic network. This paper is an attempt to organize and compare numerous notions concerning the representation of knowledge in human mind, the notions that appear in different theories in the field of cognitive linguistics.