Roman experiences with elephants in battle, proving that these “ancient tanks” posed a threat to enemies and friendlies alike, which is why — despite the beliefs of Hellenistic strategists — Roman commanders were reluctant to use war elephants. However, these seemingly useless giants (defeated, but also tamed) became a valuable prize for the Romans, as they constituted a spectacular evidence of their victory. The goal of this article is to present the methods elephants were used outside of the battlefield: as a part of triumph ceremonies and — in some measure as their consequence — at the arenas of Roman amphitheaters; furthermore, it aims to analyze antique texts on the character of the giants’ presentation
in the Eternal City, especially in the Republic era. The games organized by Pompey in 55 BC were a significant event in the context of this story — the people protested the killing of elephants at the arena, which was an unprecedented occurrence. The later venations with the participation of these animals resembled more their contemporary circus performances.

The article opens with a presentation of the figure of Adolph Occo III (1524—1606), the author of Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata. He is one of the most prominent representatives of the numismatic literature, today mostly forgotten. In subsequent parts of the work, Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata serves to present the methods of preserving the memory of Trajan, the ruler of the Roman Empire between 98 and 117AD, in numismatic material.
The author analyzed Occo’s records of legends and descriptions of the iconography of numismatics and the emerging image of emperor Trajan, interested in the East and its conqueror. The recognized, designated marks of this image are a common part of the ancient tradition and that stemming from later times, concerned with Trajan as a conqueror. There are, however, other elements, introduced
as a novum exclusively by Adolph Occo, who included them within his descriptions of Trajan’s numismatics. Such reading of Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata allows to see the author as an extraordinary erudite.

Based on a query conducted in the Lithuania National Historical Archive in Vilnius (materials of the Treasury Committee of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), the author analyzes the methods and results of a customs control on the Prussia — Courland border in 1769, something not described in historiography thus far. The control in question is the first known instance of such undertaking by the customs control of the GDL. The creation of the customs control has been initiated by the Treasury Committee of the
Duchy — a special organ overseeing the economical development of the country. The Committee’s competence included the general administration of the customs organs and their coordination in order to contribute towards the increase in the country’s income in the most effective manner possible. The direct control has been conducted by the commissioner of the GDL Treasury Committee, the
chamberlain of the Upytė district — Jerzy Leniarski, according to special instructions dated January 11th, 1769. Lenarski and his military unit were to visit all customs posts and chambers in the GDL Prussia — Courland customs zone and remit his propositions on their location, with a detailed description of the propriety of their location and territorial scope. During his visitation, Leniarski observed many examples of law abuse and breach of work discipline by the treasury officials, the most widespread of which were drunkenness, using public funds for private purposes, disorder in customs books, breaching the officials’ jurisdiction during customs controls, and others.
Jerzy Leniarski conducted an optimization of the location of customs offices, drew up a detailed characteristic of customs posts and chambers, oberguards and guards, presenting the distances between posts and clearly indicating the main public roads, as well as smuggling trails. Based on detailed descriptions, maps were drawn up, indicating the location of customs posts, settlements, inns, mills, dams, and roads (regular and smuggling ones).
Lenarski also devised a special instruction, in which he described in detail the work rules for customs posts, the responsibilities of the officials, the course of customs control, and the form of and basis for charging customs fees.

The author describes the questions of Poles appearing in the Penza Country territory and characterizes the role they played there in the 18th and the first half of the 19th century. The first information on the presence of Poles in the Penza Country come from the 17th century, when a system of defense fortifications was being built there. Poles were among national workers transferred to a new post in Penza. Another appearance of Poles in the Penza Country is related to the gentry colonization of the 18th century. In 1785, as a result of the edict of Catherine the Great on rights, liberties, and privileges of the Russian noble-born landed aristocracy, a landowner corporation of the Penza Governorate has been created. A few Polish-Lithuanian houses were a part of the corporation already in late 18th century: houses Błażewski, Łopatin, Strujski, Czufarowski, and Jagodziński. It is worth mentioning however, that during that time, these noble families were more or less Russified, and their representatives in large part accepted the Orthodox faith. The Homeland War of 1812 was an important event that influenced the appearance of Poles in the Penza Country. In the first half of the 19th century, Poles in the Penza Governorate resided there mostly as a result of their civil service, but already at that time, since the 1830s, the Governorate also became a place of temporary stay for Polish deportees, which cause to increase their numbers and role in the social and cultural development of the region.

After the Red Army entered Eastern regions of Poland between July and August of 1944, southern Podlasie (the eastern part of what is now the Mazovia Province and a part of the Lublin Province — Biała Podlaska, Siedlce, Łuków, Radzyń Podlaski, Sokołów, Węgrów Podlaski among others) became a part of the so-called “Lublin Poland”. Their initial moves were to eliminate or arrest the representatives of the Polish Underground State, mainly delegates of the Polish Government in Exile, and subsequently — to destroy the structures of Polish military conspiracy, chiefly the Home Army, by arresting and executing many officers, placing them in camps (such as Krześlinek, Świdry, Sokołów Podlaski, and Borowicze) and deporting Home Army commanders and soldiers to the USSR.

After creating the Provisional Government of National Unity in June 1945, the return of StanisławMikołajczyk to the country, and creating the Polish People’s Party, 2800 persons — working in conspiracy until then — decided to reveal themselves. However, several thousands of soldiers
decided to stay “in the forest”, as a result of repressions of the Security Service towards many exposed members of the underground. Before the 1946 referendum and the 1947 Legislative Parliament election, repressions of the communist authorities towards both the legal and illegal opposition intensified, which resulted in a significant debilitation of the armed conspiracy. Additionally, as a result of the amnesty from February 22nd, 1947, over 5700 members of the anti-communist underground decided to reveal themselves. The remaining conspirators consisted of a few units remaining from the Home Army, the National Armed Forces, and the “MiecziPług” organization. Most of them ended their activities in 1948. The armed activities of the anti-communist underground in southern Podlasie between 1944 and 1948 left a bloody toll on both sides of the political barricade. About 240 people died at the hands of the communists in the Sokołów district; in the Siedlce district 430 people died between 1944 and 1954; in the Radzyń district — about 120 people; in the Włodawa district — over 1300 people. Overall, approximately 2500 people died at the hands of the communist authorities in southern Podlasie between 1944 and 1948. It is necessary to add the victims of the popular justice, sentencing 100 people to death; overall, there were 2600 victims of communism in Podlasie. Adding about 900 people who were killed by the members of the independence underground, the death toll increases to about 3500 people. It is the price that the people of southern Podlasie paid during power struggles between 1944 and 1948.

Review article of Erik Manders' monograph entitled Coining Images of Power. Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193—284" (Leiden—Boston 2012).

Review of a scientific monograph by Prof. Henryk Kocój, published by Jagiellonian University Press on the occasion of the 220th anniversary of the Kościuszko Uprising, entitled "Dyplomaci sascy wobec powstania kościuszkowskiego" (Kraków 2013). 

Review of the edition of memoirs and diary of Stanisław, a Krakow lawyer and folk activist, compiled and published by Karolina and Stanisław Grodziski. [Stanisław Grodziski 1889-1946. Dziennik krakowskiego adwokata. Oprac.: K. Grodziska, S. Grodziski. Kraków 2013.].

Scientific review of the work entitled "Uchodźcy wojenni i polscy żołnierze internowani na Litwie w czasie II wojny światowej" by Gintautas Surgailis, published in Warsaw in 2013.

Scientific review of Jolanta Mysiakowska-Muszyńska's monograph entitled “Zabiegi o legalizację Stronnictwa Narodowego w kraju w latach 1945–1947,” published by Wydawnictwo Neriton (Warsaw) in 2011.