In order to properly classify the phraseme (that is, a constrained, or non-free, expression) No parking, a universal typology of lexical phrasemes is proposed. It is based on the following two parameters:
• The nature of constraints
— Lexemic phrasemes: the expression is constrained with respect to freely constructed meaning.
—  Semantic-lexemic phrasemes: the expression is constrained/non-constrained with respect to the meaning constrained by the conceptual representation.
—  Pragmatemes: the expression is constrained with respect to pragmatic conditions, that is, to the extralinguistic situation of its use (in a letter, on a street sign, on a package of perishable food).
• The compositionality
The expression can/cannot be represented as regular “sum” of its components.
As a result, we have, firstly, the following major classes of lexical phrasemes:
1)  Non-compositional lexemic phrasemes: idioms (˹cold feet˺, ˹shoot the breeze˺)
2)  Compositional lexemic phrasemes: collocations (rain heavily, pay a visit)
3)  Non-compositional semantic-lexemic phrasemes: nominemes (Big Dipper, New South Wales)
4)  Compositional semantic-lexemic phrasemes: clichés (See you tomorrow! | Absence makes the heart grow fonder.)
For clichés, the least-studied class of phrasemes, a more detailed classification is proposed (as a function of the type of their denotation). Secondly, each phraseme (except a nomineme) and each lexemes can be pragmatically constrained, i.e. a pragmateme: ˹Fall out!˺ (idiom; a military command) | Take aim! (collocation; a military command) | Emphasis mine/added (cliché; in a printed text) | Rest! (lexeme; a military command).

A given predicate is defined by a set of properties which combine and which automatically generate all the sentences it allows. Among them, we note the number and the semantic class of the arguments which characterize it, the adjectival and adverbial modifiers which can be added to
the scheme of arguments as well as all the transformations which affect each of these units. The speaker is responsible for attributing to sentences the set of all the forms that language allows him to generate. What has just been said can be considered as a definition of syntax.
But this situation is far from exhausting the description of a language. J. Dubois and especially Maurice Gross have devoted large-scale work to fixed expressions, that is to say, to the restrictions relating to the combinatorics usually observed around a given predicate. These studies have focused on the limitations of grammar rules as they are generally described. These two authors have drawn up lists of tens of thousands of “fixed” verbs and have highlighted the limits of this fixing. However, they made an observation without highlighting the causes of the fixing, which is a much more complex linguistic fact than this work suggests. The purpose of this article is twofold. On the one hand, it emphasizes what can be called discursive equivalences: in a given situation, the same idea can be translated by expressions which have no obvious link between them, as in: con comme la lune, con comme un balai, con comme une baleine, con comme une bite, con comme une valise. Another example: voici belle lurette, voici longtemps, voici un temps fou, voici une paille, voici une paye. It goes without saying that the speaker is not master of these expressions, because they are written in the language. This article shows that these equivalences are very numerous. On the other hand, I. Mel’čuk initiated important work on pragmatemes. Again the “regular” syntax is defective. All these cases are in fact examples of pre-constructed sequences, of which this article attempts to make a first classification. These sequences are explained by specific communication conditions as seen with these examples:
a) Doubt or reluctance in the face of information that one can hardly believe:
à d’autres !, à d’autres mais pas à moi !, à d’autres mais pas à nous !

b) Criticism of a work that is considered null and uninteresting:
c’est de la bouillie pour les chats, c’est de la bricole, c’est de la briquette, c’est de la couille,
c’est de la merde, c’est de la piquette, c’est du flan, c’est du pipeau, c’est du vent.
This is long-term work, which allows us to renew certain theoretical perspectives.

Through some examples, the paper illustrates the lexicographic approach implemented in the Polonium PRAGMALEX project, which aims to provide a pragma-semantic description of conversational formulas in French with their equivalent in Polish and Italian, highlighting their pragmatic
values. The sociolinguistic or cultural factors that determine their use in the discourse are also made more explicit.

The term ‘pragmateme’ has been coined relatively recently and therefore its usage is still hesitant and its definitions lack precision. This makes it difficult to delimit the scope of all that relates to the intuition of the term. We believe that two criteria are crucial for the identification of the concept. First, it would signify an autonomous linguistic unit implying an act of enunciation, characterised by the adequacy between selecting an appropriate linguistic segment and its application, with all that it entails as constraints. This criterion derives from classical logic, based on the binary opposition of truth and falsehood. The other element of the definition of the pragmateme is difficult to apply due to its subjectivity. It can be described in terms of many-valued fuzzy logic. It requires that a privileged link be created in the consciousness of langage users between a particular formulation, conveying a given semantic content and other, competing formulations. Neither of the two criteria is correlated with formal exponents, which prevents them from being used in a database compiled for the purpose of creating a dictionary of pragmatemes

The presented text will touch on the issue too often neglected in studies of pragmatemes, namely the role of prosody in determining what is a pragmateme and what is not. First, the analyses of prosody and of its role in the determination and functioning of various linguistic phenomena (informational structure of the sentence, presupposition, relative propositions) are reviewed, then the definitions of pragmatems by I. Mel’čuk and X. Blanco with S. Mejri are presented, to move on, at the end, to analyse the role of prosody in the determination of the pragmatematical or non-pragmatematical status of constructions through analyses of cases of pragmatemes that should not be qualified in this way without precise indications on prosody. The point is that even if mistakes are made in the spelling or transcription, the actual pronunciation of the constructions in a concrete enunciation situation must be suitable for the construction in question to function as a pragmateme. It is a suitable intonation which, with the appropriate context, makes construction a pragmateme — the intonation is thus truly (co-)generating the meaning of the construction — otherwise the construction would have its literal meaning. This finding also invites us to make a detailed study, from this point of view, of as many of the expressions qualified as pragmatems as possible, and to include the decisive prosodic information in dictionary entries of this type of expression.

The starting point of this project is the fact that we are constantly “under the influence of someone else”. From an early age, our perception of reality is shaped by the environment (community) in which we live, i.e. by our parents, friends, teachers, but also by the so-called mass media. Opinion-forming is undoubtedly deliberately instrumentalised through the implementation of a strategy aimed at obtaining the approval of its receiver. The objective of this study is to discuss different types of linguistic manipulation. We will also propose an analysis of different types of
linguistic manipulation, in particular syntactic.

This work presents and discusses the development of the hypothesis according to which clitic doubling (pronominal reduplication), as seen in the sentence “Je ne parle pas anglais moi. / I do not speak English [me]”, has the fundamental structural and pragmatic parameters of the pragmatem (R. D e O l i v e i r a, 2018). Structural, because it is a compositional construction but selected as a whole by the speaker to respond to a communication goal associated with a precise utterance situation (G. F l é c h o n et al., 2012); pragmatic, since this device is a means of acting on the interlocutive context, allowing the accomplishment of a certain number of specific acts (I. M e l’č u k, 2013). In this sense, we argue that, like the pragmatem, the devise called French clitic doubling simultaneously has the following three characteristics, it is (i) fixed, (ii) compositional, and (iii) associated with a specific utterance situation.

The concept of pragmateme as witnessed in various discursive settings is analyzed. It is demonstrated to be dependent on a diaphasic variant at work — it can be felicitously applied to utterances whose value hinges on the communicative context, and it proves inherent to the speech production of a given individual. Likewise, its value may depend on communicative circumstances and might be specific to a given speech community. Convenient examples are provided by the anti-Semitic and anti-Zionist discourses of the acclaimed French performer Dieudonné fanciers. Pragmateme’s instance taken into consideration relies on a single phonetic shape \ʃ ɔ.a.na.nɑ\ likely to correspond to two different spellings [chaud ananas] [Shoah nana]. It misrepresents the figure of a Jew, whose depreciating image tightens the ties between community members, where antiSemitism is perceived as an overarching value.

Thanking, belonging to expressive speech acts, according to the classification by Searle (1969), can be regarded as worth exploring due to the fact that gratitude, as a component of value systems, is as the fundamental emotion underlying social relations, and thus reflected in the language, especially fixed expressions, crucial for linguistic politeness. The aim of the present research is to compare explicit and implicit formulas (as referred to by Kerbrat-Orecchioni 2001) of the act of thanking in French and Polish. The examined material is composed of exemplary utterances retrieved from blogs, social networking sites, and internet fora. The methodology used includes studies on speech act theory (Austin 1962), typology of speech acts (Searle 1969), as well as research papers on language politeness by Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1996, 2001) and gratitude (SieradzkaBaziur 2017). Moreover, the author refers to comparative studies on politeness acts conducted up to now (Romero 2000, Rădulescu and Scurtu 2003, Perez 2005, Grossmann and Krzyżanowska 2018, Meng 2012). The author classifies collected explicit and implicit utterances, juxtaposing French and Polish examples and providing an analysis based on pragmatic parameters. As a result, the author creates a corpus of utterances used for expressing gratitude along with a study on diverse thanking formulas in both languages.

The aim of this paper is to present, after a short introduction to what pragmateme, or pragmatic phraseologism, is and how we understand it as a fixed expressive phrase with affective and emotive load, the results of the Polonium project entitled “Pragmatemes in contrast: from linguistic modeling to lexicographic coding”. In particular, we want to divulgate information concerning analysis of the French pragmateme Ça roule ! and its Italian corresponding phrase A posto!. Furthermore, equivalents of both pragmatemes are also investigated. However, as we consider cognitive linguistics tools as those which may give greater response to what the meaning of pragmatemes is, we broaden the project results with analysis of the trajector-landmark relation and of conceptual metaphors, that are the basis of the imagery for the aforementioned linguistic elements. In this way, we may also try to discern similarities and discrepancies in how close but still different cultures depict the same scene in similar speech events.

The paper is a continuation of the author’s previous work regarding the legitimacy of metonymy classification for the needs of automatic translation. The author attempts to solve the problem presented in the paper entitled Classification of metonymy and its usefulness in automatic translation and proposes her classification of metonymic expressions, which could be a helpful tool in computer translation.

In this article we argue in favor of a useful model to explain the productive mechanisms of formation of verb + noun metaphorical collocations. We postulate that verbo-nominal collocations, relating to human activities and relating to the fields of techniques, crafts, art and manufactures constitute a model for the metaphorical collocations. We will apply our model to metaphorical collocations with the French verb forger. For the application of our model, a corpus analysis will be necessary.

This paper investigates an attempt to apply a corpus analysis to the development of the intercultural approach to foreign language teaching through the semantic analysis of cultural keywords. Our analysis will specifically include the process of discovering the meaning of the three words: French politesse and its Polish equivalents — grzeczność and uprzejmość through their collocations collected in French and Polish corpora. As a result, firstly, we came up with a conclusion that the French word politesse is characterized by more positive semantic prosody than its Polish equivalents. Secondly, politesse appears more frequently in coordinate collocations with nouns conveying aesthetical meaning, whereas the Polish word uprzejmość is more frequently used with nouns designating ethical features. The principles of our methodology or some data used in our research can inspire the introduction of an inductive lexical approach in foreign language teaching to facilitate the conceptualization of complex cultural notions, which is the essential of the intercultural teaching.

This article examines if and how the recommendations of the spelling reform from 1990 are applied and used in practice. We have focused especially on the loanwords namely anglicisms in the Canadian French and their employment in the Canadian press in electronic format. For that purpose, we wanted to depict certain details of the spelling reform concerning words of foreign origin, and more precisely those which are borrowed from British and American English. We have also concentrated our attention on the difficulties of French grammatical system, comparing it with the Italian and Spanish grammatical systems in order to illustrate the level of complexity of the French language. To demonstrate and verify the usage of the rules recommended by the reform of French orthography, we have chosen several online versions of Canadian daily press.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the phenomenon of phraseological innovations in titles of articles in one of the Italian newspapers La Stampa. In the first part of the article, key terms such as the phraseological norm and the phraseological innovation have been defined, taking into account various terms related to this process. Then, some innovation classifications have been presented. Finally, the analytical part describes 91 titles that are examples of innovations.

This article first focuses on the defining criteria of expressive formulas for conversation (now FEC) in order to delimit their linguistic characteristics. Secondly, we offer a sketch of the typology of FEC based on semantic and pragmatic criteria.

Word-formation and compounding in Italian present many interesting challenges (classification of compounds, its interpretation and types of semantic relationship that may hold between the compound’s elements). This article attempts to examine a different one — the orthography of one productive compounding pattern in present-day Italian, that is Verb + Noun compounds. Various accounts of Verb + Noun ortography are reviewed, with special focus on the status of hyphenated words. In light of this data, the author focuces also on the problem of inclusion of compounds as multi-word units by dictionaries. The aim of this research is to contrast theoretical prescriptions with some data samples of Italian (Noun) Verb + Noun compounds drawn from La Gazzetta dello Sport (2016—2020). With this analysis the author wants to examine more in detail whether the use reflects what Italian grammarians claim about the Verb + Noun compounds ortography rules, because in various researches conducted in this field that aspect has often been neglected.

This paper raises and discusses the relation of antonymy in adjectives. Antonymy is considered to play an important role in organizing mental lexicon. This relation defined often in logical terms stands for paradigmatic relation, as presented in WordNet. However, the category of antonymous adjectives can depend on more than just the semantic qualities of a word. It is often highly context dependent. Adjectives have different interpretation depending on the noun they modify — it is no surprising that they produce different antonyms in different contexts. On the basis of few examples of investigations of antonymy, this paper argues that antonymy is not only a paradigmatic but also a syntagmatic relation. The paradigmatic-syntagmatic distinction is not always relevant to all antonymous adjectives.

The article deals with issues related to the description of polysemic units for supervised automatic translation of texts from French to Polish based on the object-oriented method by W. Banyś (AOO). Applying to the description additional tools allowing for the disambiguation — frames, scripts and register analysis — the author focuses on presenting the complexity of the description of lexical units. It should be stressed that the decision to assign meanings of such words one or another equivalents in the target language is determined by the criterion of preference. Some of the meanings of the word are easy to describe in such a way that the program can make a correct translation into the target language with a high degree of probability. However, there are often such meanings whose description is much more complex. The closer the meanings of the disambiguated words in the original and target language and the more similar the communication situation in which they are used, the more difficult it is to clearly indicate the boundaries between the meanings. In such cases, there is a much greater range of preferential character of the translation, which we have to adopt The French noun conjunction (f), chosen for analysis, reflects this phenomenon very well.

The aim of the present article is to analyse the metalinguistic function of the nominal reduplication in Spanish. The lexical reduplication is a mechanism that consists in repeating a lexical unit within one phrase. The study shows that the nominal reduplication presents metalinguistic functions that reveal the interest of the speakers in a number of semantic issues related to the linguistic categorization and the concept of prototype. What is more, the metalinguistic aspect of the reduplicative constructions play a crucial role in a variety of situations as it entails some intersubjective meanings that are of a great importance for the interaction.